Study materials
Three sentences with the same content. What differs is not what is said but how it is fastened together.
The train was late, so we missed the meeting.
Because the train was late, we missed the meeting.
The train was late. Therefore, we missed the meeting.
Notice the punctuation. Some words stitch clauses inside one sentence; others open a new one. Confusing the two types is what this page is really about.
Two kinds of link
Words with similar meanings behave differently depending on which group they belong to.
| Conjunctions | Linking adverbs | |
|---|---|---|
| examples | because, although, so, but | however, therefore, moreover |
| where they stand | inside a sentence | at the start of a new sentence |
| punctuation | a comma or nothing | a full stop before, a comma after |
So however cannot replace but inside a sentence. These words are not technically interchangeable, however alike their meanings.
Cause and result
Cause is introduced by because, since and as. Result is introduced by so inside a sentence, or by therefore and as a result at the start of a new one.
We stayed home because it was raining.
It was raining, so we stayed home.
It was raining. As a result, we stayed home.
The difference between because, since and as is small. Because is the most neutral; since and as sound slightly more formal and more often stand first.
Contrast
This is where most of the traps are, because words with the same translation behave differently.
Although it was raining, we went out.
It was raining, but we went out.
It was raining. However, we went out.
Despite and in spite of stand apart. A noun or an ing form follows them, never a full clause.
Despite the rain, we went out.
Despite it was raining → Although it was raining
One more pair contrasts two facts: while and whereas. They do not oppose so much as compare: She likes tea, whereas he prefers coffee.
Purpose
Purpose is expressed in two ways, and the choice depends on whether the doer changes.
I left early to catch the train.
I left early so that she could use the car.
The form in order to sounds more formal than a plain to, with the same meaning. But for is not used before a verb of purpose: for to catch is a mistake.
The mistakes everyone makes
The first is putting however inside a sentence in place of but.
It was raining however we went out. → It was raining, but we went out.
The second is joining because and so in one sentence.
Because it was late, so we left. → Because it was late, we left.
The third is putting a full clause after despite.
Despite the traffic was bad, we arrived on time. → Despite the bad traffic, we arrived on time.
All three are caught by one question. What am I joining: two halves of one sentence, or two separate sentences? The answer sets both the word and the punctuation.
Try it right now
Take one event from yesterday and describe it in English three times: with because, with so, and with however in a second sentence.
Then add a fourth sentence with although. Check the commas: an opening although clause needs one after it.