Study materials
Three sentences report the same thing, but different people are responsible for it.
The current model is outdated.
The author's claim.
Chen argues that the current model is outdated.
Chen's claim.
It is widely believed that the current model is outdated.
No source is named.
Reporting is the second way of distancing, alongside softening. This article explains how to attribute a claim to a source, who is answerable for a claim, how the reporting verb shows the author's attitude, which verbs accept the truth, the patterns of claim, deny and purport, and how to cite a source.
Distance through reporting
The second way to distance yourself from a claim is to attribute it to a source. Then the source, not the author, is responsible for it.
The data are incomplete.
The author's claim.
Smith argues that the data are incomplete.
The claim is Smith's.
According to Smith, the data are incomplete.
The same with according to.
According to is followed by the source, not its opinion: according to Smith or in Smith's opinion, but not according to Smith's opinion. About yourself, say in my opinion, not according to me.
When there is a source, it is better to name it. Three recent reviews conclude that… is more convincing than It is widely accepted that…, because the source can be checked.
Who is answerable for a claim
This scale decides whom the reader will turn to with an objection.
Smith argues that the model is outdated.
Argue with Smith.
It has been argued that the model is outdated.
Who exactly thinks so is not said.
We argue that the model is outdated.
Argue with the authors of the paper.
The impersonal it pattern is useful when a view really is widespread and has no single author. If the source is known, it is better to name it. We and I are quite acceptable in academic writing when you speak about your own position or your own actions.
The reporting verb shows a stance
The verb used to report someone's words often shows whether the author agrees with the source.
| Verb | What it usually signals |
|---|---|
| states, notes, reports, points out | neutral |
| argues, maintains | a position open to debate |
| claims, alleges | the author may have doubts |
| demonstrates, shows | the author accepts it as proven |
| admits, concedes | it is awkward for the source to admit |
Most of these verbs take that: Smith notes that…, The author points out that… Suggest meaning propose takes -ing or that: Smith suggests revising the model, not suggests to revise.
Explain reports an explanation neutrally, while insist shows that the speaker stands firm although nobody believes them: He insisted that he was innocent. Explain and describe do not take the person straight after them: The author explained to us that the sample was small, not explained us that.
Verbs that accept the truth
Some verbs already say that what follows them is true. These are show, demonstrate, prove, realise and know. If you write Smith showed that the drug works, you also agree that the drug works.
Smith showed that the drug works.
You accept it as a fact.
Smith claimed that the drug works.
You only report it.
So a sentence like He proved that the Earth is flat sounds odd unless you agree. For someone else's view without your agreement, use claim, argue, suggest or believe.
Patterns of reporting verbs
Most reporting verbs take that and a clause. Some have other patterns too, and this is where mistakes happen.
| Verb | Pattern | Example |
|---|---|---|
| claim | that or to + verb | He claims to be a doctor. |
| purport | only to + verb | The letter purports to be from the bank. |
| deny | that or -ing | She denied taking the money. |
| admit | that or -ing | He admitted making a mistake. |
| suggest | that or -ing | The data suggest that prices will rise. |
Purport means to present itself as and never takes that. Deny and admit do not take to with a base form. Admit to does occur, but only with -ing: He admitted to making a mistake.
How to cite a source
A citation has several patterns, and each has its own grammar.
| Pattern | Example |
|---|---|
| reporting verb with that | Chen (2021) argues that the model is outdated. |
| as without that | As Chen (2021) argues, the model is outdated. |
| according to | According to Chen (2021), the model is outdated. |
| citation in brackets | The model is outdated (Chen, 2021). |
After as the reporting verb takes no that, because as already links the parts. If a past year is named, the Past Simple is needed: In 2019, Smith showed. The Present Perfect is used for accumulated knowledge with no date: Several studies have shown.
Common mistakes
The first mistake is according to with an opinion.
According to Smith's opinion, the data are incomplete. → According to Smith, … or In Smith's opinion, …
According to already means in the view of.
The second mistake is to after suggest.
Smith suggests to revise the model. → Smith suggests revising the model.
Suggest takes -ing or that.
The third mistake is the person straight after explain.
The author explained us that the sample was small. → The author explained to us that…
To brings in the person after explain.
The first mistake shows right after according to. The name of the source stands there, and opinion is extra. The second shows after suggest. An -ing form or that follows. The third shows right after explain. To brings in the person before that, and without a person you simply say explained that.