Study materials
These three sentences describe the same situation but say different things about it.
The meeting may have been cancelled.
I am guessing.
The meeting was reportedly cancelled.
I was told so.
The meeting was evidently cancelled.
I can see signs, such as an empty hall.
The first sentence rates likelihood, while the second and third name the source of knowledge. This article explains the three scales, the words that name the source of knowledge, seem and appear, the patterns is said to and it is said that, and how apparently differs from obviously.
Three different scales
What is called the modality of a claim consists of three independent questions. How likely is it? How do I know? Who is answerable for it?
| Scale | Question | Means |
|---|---|---|
| certainty | how likely | must, may, might, is likely to, probably |
| source of knowledge | how I know | apparently, evidently, reportedly, allegedly |
| responsibility | who claims it | we argue, Smith argues, it has been argued |
The bridge may be unsafe.
Low certainty, no source named.
The bridge is reportedly unsafe.
Others say so. No judgement of your own.
We argue that the bridge is unsafe.
This is our position, and we are ready to defend it.
The scales are independent. You can be very sure about what others said and quite unsure about your own observation. So in a precise text it helps to know which scale you are adjusting.
How I know
English has no separate grammatical forms for the source of knowledge, as some languages do. Adverbs do this job.
| Word | Source |
|---|---|
| reportedly | others report it, often the media |
| allegedly | it is claimed but not proven, often about a crime |
| apparently | I heard it, or it looks that way, I have not checked |
| evidently | there are visible signs or evidence |
| clearly, obviously | it should be obvious to the reader too |
Apparently, Taras has moved to Lviv.
I heard it from someone.
Taras has evidently moved. His flat is empty.
A conclusion from what can be seen.
The verbs seem and appear do the same. They are followed by to and a verb, and for the past by to have and the past participle.
He seems to know the answer.
That is how it looks now.
She appears to have left early.
It looks as if she left early.
For other people's claims you say is said to, is reported to, is thought to, is believed to, is alleged to, and for the past you again add have and the past participle: The minister is alleged to have taken a bribe. Another pattern starts with it: It is alleged that the minister took a bribe.
Apparently does not mean that something is obvious. For that, use obviously: Obviously, Kyiv is bigger than Lviv.
Common mistakes
The first mistake is a simple infinitive instead of a past one.
She appears to leave already. → She appears to have left already.
The action has happened, so to have left.
The second mistake is mixing two patterns.
The minister is alleged that he took a bribe. → The minister is alleged to have taken a bribe.
Either is alleged to have taken, or It is alleged that he took.
The third mistake is apparently where something is obvious.
Apparently, two and two make four. → Obviously, two and two make four.
Apparently means I have heard or it seems.
The first mistake shows if you ask when the action happened. If earlier, seem or appear takes to have and the third form. The second shows at the start of the sentence. If a person stands there, is alleged to follows, and if it, then that. The third shows if you ask how the speaker knows. If they heard it from someone, apparently fits, and if it is obvious to everyone, obviously.